In the 21st century, India has emerged as a formidable global power. Once a nation whose very survival was questioned at its inception 77 years ago, India now stands tall on the world stage. Reflecting on Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru’s assertion that India would become a great power not out of desire but due to its destiny, today’s reality validates that prophecy. Since gaining independence from Britain in 1947, India is enjoying its most advantageous geopolitical position ever.

According to historian Paul Kennedy’s analysis, India possesses the critical components of a great power: a vast and growing population, a rapidly expanding economy poised to become the world’s third-largest, increasing military strength, and its bid for a permanent seat on the Security Council. The 21st century has brought significant changes—spurts of economic growth, a substantial demographic dividend, and a favorable geopolitical landscape. Over the past decade, a strong domestic government has further propelled India’s ascent.

Governed by the right-wing Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) under the leadership of Prime Minister Narendra Modi, India has shifted away from its foundational socialist and libertarian principles. In 2024, Modi became the longest-serving prime minister since Indira Gandhi. His tenure is often characterized by strongman leadership rooted in the ideology of Hindutva. Modi’s personality and ideological foundations have been pivotal in shaping his leadership style and are deeply reflected in his policies.

This essay analyzes the evolution of Indian foreign policy under Prime Minister Narendra Modi. It explores how his personality traits and ideological underpinnings have influenced foreign policy decisions and examines the impact on India’s current geopolitical positioning. The discussion aims to shed light on the successes and challenges of India’s rise, as well as the need for recalibrating its approach to strengthen regional relationships and rebuild trust with its neighbors.

Placing PM Modi   

Prime Minister Narendra Modi, born on September 17, 1950, in Vadnagar, Gujarat, rose from modest beginnings to become one of India’s most transformative yet polarizing leaders. His early life was shaped by the teachings of Swami Vivekananda, and his frequent interactions with Swami Atmasthananda of the Ramakrishna Mission highlighted his interest in spirituality and disciplined living. At the age of 21, Modi joined the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), the ideological parent of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). The RSS, established in 1925, is a staunch proponent of Hindutva and Hindu nationalism—ideologies that would later define Modi’s political persona.

Modi’s career in active politics began in 1987 when he became the General Secretary of the BJP in Gujarat. His organizational acumen was evident early on, as he orchestrated the BJP’s first victory in the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation elections and strengthened the party’s performance in the 1990 Gujarat Assembly elections. By the 1995 Assembly elections, his efforts secured a decisive BJP win with 121 seats, signaling his growing influence within the party.

Modi’s national prominence grew during his tenure as the BJP’s National Secretary and later as General Secretary (Organisation), where he played a critical role in the party’s 1998 Lok Sabha election victory. However, his appointment as Gujarat’s Chief Minister in October 2001 marked a turning point. Handpicked to stabilize the state after the devastating Kutch earthquake and amid waning public confidence in the BJP’s leadership, Modi was thrust into a challenging role. His early tenure was overshadowed by the 2002 Gujarat riots, which resulted in significant communal violence. While Modi faced widespread criticism and allegations of mismanagement, a Special Investigation Team appointed by the Supreme Court later cleared him of direct involvement.

In 2013, the BJP named Modi as its prime ministerial candidate for the 2014 general elections. His campaign was a masterclass in narrative-building, leveraging his modest upbringing, strongman persona, and record of development in Gujarat. Modi positioned himself as a self-made leader, sharply contrasting with the Congress party’s dynastic politics. Riding an anti-incumbency wave against the Congress government, which was plagued by corruption scandals and inefficiency, Modi’s BJP secured a historic victory with 282 seats, marking the first majority for a single party in three decades. His campaign also pioneered the use of social media, setting a new benchmark for election strategies in India.

What set Modi apart from his predecessors was his ability to appeal to the masses as a leader with humble origins, untainted by elite privilege. His control over the political narrative, combined with a highly organized election machinery, made him a formidable force. A key element of his appeal was his unapologetic endorsement of Hindutva. Modi’s rhetoric often included strong critiques of India’s secular framework, aligning with the BJP’s vision of a Hindu Rashtra. His messaging resonated with a significant section of the electorate, particularly the youth, and helped the BJP sustain its momentum through successive state and general elections.

In 2019, the BJP capitalized on the “Modi wave” to secure an even larger mandate, winning 303 seats. This period saw Hindutva politics becoming a central feature of Indian political discourse. However, the 2024 general elections marked a shift. Despite the BJP’s ambitious goal of crossing 400 seats, it managed only 241, requiring coalition support to retain power. Modi’s third term as Prime Minister has been weaker than his previous two, yet the legacy of Hindutva remains deeply entrenched in Indian politics, shaping electoral narratives and public discourse alike.

From Philosophy to Politics: The Rise of Hindutva

The concept of Hindutva originates in the writings of Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, a prominent thinker of the early 20th century. His seminal work, Essentials of Hindutva (1922), later expanded into Hindutva: Who is a Hindu? (1928), laid the ideological foundation for Hindu nationalism. Savarkar argued that Hindus constituted a distinct nation, bound by common blood, culture, and heritage. For him, the Hindu identity transcended religion and was deeply rooted in shared history, language, and reverence for the subcontinent as both the fatherland (Pitribhoomi) and the holy land (Punyabhoomi).

Savarkar’s interpretation was expansive yet exclusive. He included followers of indigenous religions—Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, and Sikhs—within the scope of Hindutva but excluded Muslims and Christians, viewing them as outsiders because their holy lands lay beyond India’s borders. This ideological framework sought to unify Hindus under a singular identity, fostering allegiance to a shared cultural and national genealogy. Savarkar envisioned Hindutva as a response to global movements like Pan-Islamism and Pan-Slavism, advocating for Hindus to form a cohesive bloc to strengthen their position in the “struggle for existence and power.”

Inspired by Savarkar’s vision, the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) was established in 1925. Serving as the ideological parent of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), the RSS played a pivotal role in propagating Hindutva. Over time, Hindutva evolved from a socio-cultural philosophy into a political force, ultimately becoming central to contemporary Indian politics.

Criticism of Hindutva

The ideology of Hindutva has faced significant criticism for departing from the pluralistic and inclusive ideals enshrined in the Indian Constitution. Unlike civic nationalism, which emphasizes individual freedoms and inclusivity, Hindutva prioritizes a singular cultural identity. Critics argue that it seeks to homogenize India’s diverse population by promoting one faith, one language, and one cultural framework. This approach conflicts with the constitutional vision of India as a secular and multicultural democracy.

Hindutva’s rise has also been marked by challenges to civil liberties and increased marginalization of minority communities, particularly Muslims. Policies such as the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA), which incorporate religious criteria for citizenship, have drawn widespread criticism for institutionalizing discrimination. Rhetoric labeling Muslims as “infiltrators” and “outsiders” has further fueled communal polarization.

The implications of Hindutva’s ascendancy are deeply troubling. Incidents of mob lynching in the name of cow protection, a surge in cow vigilantism, and heightened communal tensions across districts have underscored its divisive impact. This ideological framework has fostered an environment where dissent is stifled, and minorities often feel alienated and unsafe.

Hindutva in Contemporary Indian Politics

Under Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s leadership, Hindutva has transitioned from the fringes of Indian politics to its very center. The BJP has skillfully integrated the ideology into its governance and political narratives, making Hindutva a defining feature of India’s contemporary political identity. Electoral campaigns frequently hinge on Hindu nationalist rhetoric, with slogans emphasizing cultural revivalism and the vision of a Hindu Rashtra.

Hindutva’s influence is evident not only in domestic policies but also in the tone of political discourse, where the emphasis on majoritarian identity often overshadows pluralism. This ideological dominance has had far-reaching implications for India’s international image and foreign policy. The next section examines how Hindutva has shaped India’s diplomatic trajectory under Modi, analyzing its role in the evolution of Indian foreign policy and bilateral relations over the past decade.

Hindutva in Foreign Policy: Modi’s Reimagining of India’s Global Role

India’s emergence as the centerpiece of contemporary global political discourse is largely driven by the structural changes reshaping the international order. The shifting balance of power and growing disillusionment with China in the West have turned the world’s attention to India, now the fastest-growing major economy. India’s favorable demographics, its position as an attractive alternative to China, and its central role in the strategic geography of the Indo-Pacific have collectively contributed to making this India’s moment.

These broader dynamics, combined with Modi’s ability to align foreign policy with domestic aspirations, have positioned India as a rising global power. When Narendra Modi assumed office in 2014, critics questioned his preparedness for handling foreign policy, given his prior focus on domestic governance in Gujarat. Concerns were raised about whether his Hindu nationalist credentials might limit India’s outreach to diverse global partners, particularly in the Islamic world. However, over the years, Modi’s foreign policy has reflected a pragmatic approach, anchored in the principle of “India First.”

Redefining Foreign Policy for an Aspirational Society

Prime Minister Narendra Modi has redefined the discourse around foreign policy by aligning it with the aspirations of ordinary Indians. Traditionally a specialized domain detached from public engagement, foreign policy has been transformed into a key performance metric of governance. Under Modi, diplomacy has become a populist spectacle, showcased through grand events, strategic partnerships, and social media campaigns. Mega diaspora gatherings at venues like Madison Square Garden in New York and Wembley Stadium in London exemplify this shift, turning international diplomacy into a demonstration of India’s soft power and Modi’s charisma.

Observers credit Modi’s government with the mass popularization of foreign policy. Unlike his predecessors, who treated it as a niche field, Modi infused it with national pride and a sense of purpose. The government’s narrative suggests that just as Modi’s journey from modest beginnings to global prominence symbolizes India’s rise, his leadership will secure prosperity and global respect for Indian voters.

Ideological Undertones: Hindutva in Foreign Policy

Hindutva, while primarily a domestic political ideology, subtly influences Modi’s foreign policy. The BJP promotes India as a civilizational state, drawing on Hindu cultural and historical references. Concepts such as Vishwa Guru (“world teacher”) and Vishwa Mitra (“friend to the world”) emphasize India’s exceptionalism and its role as a moral and cultural leader. This narrative aligns with Hindutva’s focus on India’s ancient traditions, showcased through the global promotion of yoga, Ayurveda, and Indian culture.

However, this civilizational rhetoric remains largely symbolic in foreign policy practice. At its core, India’s approach retains continuity with the past. Policies once rooted in Nehruvian ideals have been rebranded—nonalignment is now “strategic autonomy,” and Indian exceptionalism is reframed as Vishwa Mitra and Vishwa Guru. Nonetheless, Modi’s administration has infused these principles with the BJP’s emphasis on self-reliance (Atmanirbhar Bharat), shaping economic diplomacy and promoting domestic manufacturing.

Indian Ocean Ambitions: Becoming a Net Security Provider

A significant aspect of Modi’s foreign policy has been India’s strategic ambitions in the Indian Ocean. Through the doctrine of “Security and Growth for All in the Region” (SAGAR), India has asserted its intent to be the net security provider in the region. This aligns with Hindutva’s emphasis on protecting the nation and consolidating India’s influence in its immediate and extended neighborhood. Modi’s government has prioritized investments in maritime infrastructure, enhanced naval capabilities, and strengthened partnerships with countries in the Indo-Pacific, ensuring India’s central role in the regional security architecture. The success of these efforts is evident in the Indian Navy’s successful operations in the Red Sea against Somali pirates.

Balancing Ideology and Pragmatism

While Hindutva’s ideological undertones are present, Modi’s foreign policy remains pragmatic. For instance, despite concerns about his domestic image as a Hindu nationalist, Modi has successfully cultivated strong ties with Islamic nations, including Saudi Arabia and the UAE. This balancing act highlights his government’s strategic priorities, which often outweigh ideological considerations on the global stage.

Domestically, Modi’s consolidation of power has bolstered his international positioning. Landmark decisions such as the abrogation of Article 370 and the reorganization of Jammu and Kashmir were framed as efforts to fully integrate the region into India. These moves, though controversial, were presented internationally as measures to combat Pakistani state-sponsored terrorism and to secure India’s sovereignty.

A Performance-Oriented Diplomacy

Modi’s foreign policy is also characterized by its performative elements. His unprecedented number of international visits and high-profile engagements reflect an active pursuit of bilateral and multilateral partnerships. A significant marker of his foreign policy approach was the appointment of Dr. S. Jaishankar, a seasoned career diplomat, as the Minister of External Affairs. This choice, uncommon in Indian politics, signaled a deliberate emphasis on expertise and professionalism in international affairs and has been widely regarded as a positive departure from tradition.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, India’s “vaccine diplomacy” exemplified its global leadership aspirations, with millions of vaccine doses sent to countries in the Global South. By leveraging media, orchestrating grand diplomatic gestures, and personalizing foreign relations, Modi has elevated India’s global reputation. These efforts have positioned India as a key player in an emerging multipolar world and a leader of the Global South, even as foundational elements of its foreign policy remain unchanged.

India and the Rest of the World

India’s foreign policy under Prime Minister Narendra Modi has achieved notable successes in strengthening relationships with key global players. While global dynamics have favored India’s rise, its diplomatic adeptness has ensured that these opportunities are effectively leveraged. These partnerships underscore India’s emergence as a pivotal player in world politics, adeptly navigating the challenges and opportunities of the 21st-century geopolitical landscape.

India and the West: Strengthened Partnerships with Strategic Depth

India’s relations with the West have seen significant improvement over the past decade, driven by both global dynamics and strategic initiatives. Relations with the G7 countries have strengthened, with a notable expansion in India-U.S. ties. Building on the momentum of the 2008 India-U.S. Civil Nuclear Agreement and subsequent strengthening of ties, the Modi government has broadened the relationship to include technology transfers, defense collaborations, energy and climate response, education, and healthcare. These developments have remained consistent across three U.S. presidencies during Modi’s tenure, underscoring the bipartisan consensus in Washington on the importance of India as a strategic partner.

The United Kingdom and France have also continued to maintain strong ties with India, particularly in defense, technology, and climate action. However, relations with Canada have become strained, especially after allegations of Indian involvement in the killing of a Canadian citizen and Khalistani activist. Despite this outlier, India’s relations with other Western nations have been bolstered by extensive collaborations in technology, diaspora engagement, and energy transitions, reflecting India’s growing importance as a global partner.

India and Russia: Walking the Geopolitical Tightrope

Friendship with Russia has long been a cornerstone of India’s foreign policy, particularly in defense and technology cooperation. Over the last decade, however, the nature of this relationship has evolved. India has sought to reduce its dependence on Russian defense technology imports by diversifying its sources and strengthening ties with the U.S., France, Israel, and other nations. Simultaneously, India has emphasized domestic defense production under its Atmanirbhar Bharat initiative.

Despite these shifts, the Ukraine conflict has added complexity to the India-Russia relationship. India has refrained from directly criticizing Russia, maintaining a neutral stance that reflects its commitment to strategic autonomy. This approach has enabled India to continue importing discounted Russian crude oil, which is refined and exported to markets such as Europe. India’s engagement with Russia also persists in multilateral forums like BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), and the G20. Prime Minister Modi’s recent meetings with President Putin underscore the continuity of this partnership, even amid geopolitical turbulence. India’s ability to maintain balanced relations with both Russia and Western powers highlights its diplomatic agility.

India and the Middle East: Expanding Strategic Engagement

Despite domestic challenges, including communal tensions, India’s relations with the Middle East have reached unprecedented heights under Modi’s leadership. Saudi Arabia, the UAE, Qatar, and Oman have emerged as key partners, driven by mutual economic, energy, and security interests. The Middle East remains crucial for India’s energy security, supplying over 80% of its oil imports. Furthermore, the region’s investments in India’s energy sector have solidified India’s role as a global refining hub.

Economic ties have deepened, with over eight million Indians working in the Gulf accounting for nearly 30% of India’s remittance inflows. Strategic engagement has also expanded to include joint military exercises, reflecting a shift toward more comprehensive security cooperation. For instance, India has conducted combined air, naval, and army exercises with the UAE and Oman, and participated in multilateral naval exercises with Qatar, Bahrain, and Saudi Arabia. Additionally, India has engaged in multilateral initiatives such as the I2U2 (India-Israel-UAE-USA) and the IMEC (India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor). However, while these forums hold promise, they have yet to achieve significant momentum as the Middle East grapples with ongoing conflicts and geopolitical uncertainties on its fringes.

India has also maintained a delicate balance in its relations with Iran, investing significantly in the Chabahar Port while reducing hydrocarbon imports in compliance with Western sanctions. Simultaneously, its deepening ties with Israel, marked by strategic and ideological alignment, reflect the influence of Hindutva in foreign policy. India’s nuanced stance during the Israel-Hamas conflict in 2023—expressing solidarity with Israel while abstaining from a U.N. resolution condemning Israeli attacks on Gaza—highlights its evolving role as a pragmatic global actor willing to diverge from broader Global South positions.

India’s Neighbourhood: A Chaotic Terrain

India’s immediate neighborhood remains a critical and challenging aspect of its foreign policy, with recent years only deepening the complexities. Despite the ‘Neighbourhood First Policy’ launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi in 2014, relations with neighboring countries have significantly deteriorated. While some of this can be attributed to broader regional and global dynamics, the lack of trust and cooperation with its neighbors represents a significant shortcoming of India’s foreign policy under Modi’s leadership.

A precarious mix of rivalry and resentment has long defined India’s relations with its neighbors. Historical disputes with Pakistan over Kashmir and persistent border tensions with China underscore the region’s strategic challenges. However, relations with smaller neighbors like Nepal, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives have also soured, despite New Delhi’s efforts to maintain regional influence.

The difficulties India faces are not entirely of its own making. Political leaders in neighboring nations have frequently used anti-India rhetoric to consolidate power, portraying India as an overbearing regional hegemon. This narrative, fueled by fears of dominance, has become a potent electoral strategy in many parts of South Asia. Simultaneously, China’s growing presence in the region has provided India’s neighbors with an alternative to Indian support, reducing New Delhi’s leverage. Initiatives such as the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) have enabled countries like Nepal, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives to diversify their partnerships, challenging India’s traditional role as the preeminent power in South Asia.

However, a significant part of the challenge also stems from India’s own missteps. While the Modi government has invested heavily in global image-building campaigns, these efforts have not translated into goodwill within the neighborhood. A trust deficit has emerged, with many of India’s neighbors perceiving its policies as prioritizing global aspirations over regional cooperation. The impact of these dynamics is evident in India’s strained relationships across South Asia.

In the Maldives, a government with an anti-India stance recently came to power, prompting the withdrawal of a small Indian humanitarian force stationed in the country. Nepal’s Prime Minister KP Sharma Oli, known for his pro-China orientation, bypassed the tradition of visiting India first and opted for China instead, signaling a shift in Kathmandu’s priorities. In Sri Lanka, while India supported President Ranil Wickremesinghe, the rise of Anura Dissanayake’s left-wing coalition has introduced uncertainty to the relationship, given historical grievances tied to India’s involvement during the civil war.

Bangladesh, once considered a cornerstone of India’s regional diplomacy under Sheikh Hasina, has also seen anti-India rhetoric gain traction. Hasina’s ouster has created a diplomatic quandary for New Delhi, with the new government demanding her extradition. Myanmar, meanwhile, remains mired in civil war following the 2021 military coup, with India’s cautious engagement drawing criticism for failing to address the broader humanitarian crisis. Relations with Afghanistan have stalled entirely, with India maintaining no official ties with the Taliban regime since its return to power in 2021.

India’s two most contentious relationships—with Pakistan and China—have seen little improvement. Diplomatic ties with Pakistan have remained frozen since 2016, marked by incidents such as the Pathankot attacks, Pulwama attack in 2019 and ongoing hostility over Kashmir. With China, tensions peaked during the 2020 Galwan Valley clash, where casualties on both sides brought relations to a historic low. While a recent agreement on border patrolling rights offers a glimmer of hope, mistrust persists, particularly as China continues to expand its influence in the region.

The deteriorating state of India’s relationships with its neighbors highlights a critical gap in its foreign policy. The Neighbourhood First policy, once a symbol of regional integration and goodwill, now appears sidelined by New Delhi’s focus on global ambitions. Rebuilding trust and recalibrating India’s approach to its neighbors will require a renewed commitment to understanding their interests and addressing their concerns.

India’s Path Ahead

Over the past decade, India under Prime Minister Narendra Modi has witnessed a profound transformation in its global standing. Positioned as a leader of the Global South and a pivotal actor in an evolving multipolar world, India has expanded its diplomatic footprint and asserted itself as a key player in international affairs. Domestically, while the rhetoric of Hindutva has become more prominent, Modi’s foreign policy has been guided largely by pragmatism, with strategic interests taking precedence over ideological posturing.

However, significant challenges lie ahead. The rapidly shifting dynamics of the global order will require India to remain adaptable, seizing opportunities while effectively managing emerging crises. Despite its rising global influence, unresolved tensions in its immediate neighborhood present a serious obstacle to India’s broader ambitions. Building trust and fostering meaningful cooperation with neighboring countries will be critical to ensuring regional stability and advancing India’s global aspirations.

As Prime Minister Modi embarks on his third term, his government faces the added challenge of navigating a weaker domestic position, with the BJP no longer holding a clear parliamentary majority. This will require a careful balancing act between visionary diplomacy, pragmatic foreign policy, and addressing domestic political constraints. Renewed efforts to strengthen regional ties and address neighborhood challenges will be crucial for maintaining India’s credibility and leadership. For Modi, this moment represents both a challenge and an opportunity to redefine India’s trajectory. How India balances domestic imperatives with global ambitions in the coming years will shape its role in international affairs and determine the legacy of Modi’s leadership on the world stage.